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Hmong language

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</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Hmong</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Mong</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">lus Hmoob / lug Moob / lol Hmongb / lus Hmôngz (Vietnam) / <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009642731">

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</style>𖬇𖬰𖬞 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234443428">

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</style>𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰‎</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">[m̥ɔ̃́]</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and <a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">4.5 million<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">

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</style><a href="#endnote_PopulationEthnologue">[a]</a> (2015)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a>

<a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Core Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="West_Hmongic_languages" title="West Hmongic languages">West Hmongic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Chuanqiandian cluster</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Hmong</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Hmong_writing" title="Hmong writing">Hmong writing</a>: incl. <a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>, <a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong</a>, multiple <a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> standards</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>China</li><li>Laos</li><li>Myanmar</li><li>Vietnam</li><li>Thailand</li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #f2ceee;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=190">hmn</a></code> Hmong, Mong (China, Laos)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmn" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmn">hmn</a></code> – inclusive code for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except <code>hmf</code> and <code>hmv</code> Individual codes: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/cqd" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:cqd">cqd</a></code> – Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hea" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hea">hea</a></code> – Northern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hma" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hma">hma</a></code> – Southern Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmc" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmc">hmc</a></code> – Central Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmd" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmd">hmd</a></code> – Large Flowery Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hme" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hme">hme</a></code> – Eastern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmf" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmf">hmf</a></code> – Hmong Don (Vietnam) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmg" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmg">hmg</a></code> – Southwestern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmh" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmh">hmh</a></code> – Southwestern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmi" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmi">hmi</a></code> – Northern Huishui Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmj" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmj">hmj</a></code> – Ge <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hml" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hml">hml</a></code> – Luopohe Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmm" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmm">hmm</a></code> – Central Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmp" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmp">hmp</a></code> – Northern Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmq" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmq">hmq</a></code> – Eastern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hms" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hms">hms</a></code> – Southern Qiandong Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmv" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmv">hmv</a></code> – Hmong Dô (Vietnam) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmw" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmw">hmw</a></code> – Western Mashan Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmy" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmy">hmy</a></code> – Southern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hmz" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hmz">hmz</a></code> – Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hnj" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hnj">hnj</a></code> – Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hrm" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hrm">hrm</a></code> – A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/huj" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:huj">huj</a></code> – Northern Guiyang Hmong <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mmr" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:mmr">mmr</a></code> – Western Xiangxi Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/muq" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:muq">muq</a></code> – Eastern Xiangxi Miao <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mww" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:mww">mww</a></code> – Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sfm" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:sfm">sfm</a></code> – Small Flowery Miao</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/firs1234">firs1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=48-AAA-a">48-AAA-a</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;">Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple</div></td></tr><tr></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">

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Hmong or Mong (/ˈmʌŋ/ MUNG; <a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">RPA</a>: Hmoob, CHV: Hmôngz, <a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a>: 𞄀𞄩𞄰, <a href="Pahawh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahawh">Pahawh</a>: 𖬌𖬣𖬵, [m̥ɔ̃́]) is a <a href="Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> of the <a href="West_Hmongic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Hmongic">West Hmongic</a> branch of the <a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic languages</a> spoken by the <a href="Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong people</a> of <a href="Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern China</a>, northern <a href="Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and <a href="Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> There are an estimated 4.5 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 <a href="Hmong_Americans" title="Hmong Americans">Hmong Americans</a> as of 2013.<a href="#cite_note-Jarkey_2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the <a href="Dananshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dananshan">Dananshan</a> dialect forms the basis of the standard language.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2></div>

Mong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as Chuanqiandian Miao (<a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 川黔滇苗; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao'), called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called Chuanqiandian Miao. The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" (第一土语) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names Mong Leng, Hmong Dleu/Der, and Hmong Daw are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster.

<a href="Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, <a href="Small_Flowery_Miao" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Flowery Miao">Small Flowery Miao</a>, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names.

<ul><li>Hmong/Mong/Chuanqiandian Miao macrolanguage (China, Laos, also spoken by minorities in Thailand and the United States), including:

<ul><li>Hmong Daw (Hmong Der, Hmoob Dawb, Hmong Dleu, Hmongb Dleub, 'White Hmong'; Chinese: 白苗, Bái Miáo, 'White Miao'),</li>

<li>Mong Leng (Moob Leeg, Moob Ntsuab, Mongb Nzhuab, 'Blue/Green Hmong'; Chinese: 青苗, Qīng Miáo, 'Blue-Green Miao'),</li>

<li>Hmong Shua (Hmongb Shuat; 'Sinicized Miao'),</li>

<li>Hmo or A-Hmo (Chinese: 角苗, Jiǎo Miáo, 'Horned Miao'),</li>

<li><a href="Small_Flowery_Miao" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Flowery Miao">Small Flowery Miao</a>,</li>

<li>and the rest of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster located in China.</li></ul></li>

<li>Hmong languages of Vietnam, not considered part of the China/Laos macrolanguage and possibly forming their own distinct macrolanguage — they are still not very well classified even if they are described by Ethnologue as having vigorous use (in Vietnam) but without population estimates; they have most probably been influenced by <a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, as well as by <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a> (in the former <a href="French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina colonies</a>) and later <a href="American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, and they may be confused with varieties spoken by minorities living today in the United States, Europe or elsewhere in Asia (where their varieties may have been assimilated locally, but separately in each area, with other Hmong varieties imported from Laos and China):

<ul><li>Hmong Dô (Vietnam),</li>

<li>Hmong Don (Vietnam, assumed).</li></ul></li></ul>

The <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between <a href="British_English" title="British English">British</a> and <a href="American_English" title="American English">American English</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a>

Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above:

<ul><li>Dananshan Miao (Hmong Drout Raol, Hmong Hout Lab; called Hmong Dou in Northern Hmong), the basis of the Chinese standard of the Chuanqiandian cluster</li>

<li>Black Miao (subgroups: Hmong Dlob, Hmong Buak/Hmoob Puas; Chinese: 黑苗, Hēi Miáo)<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li>

<li>Southern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Shib, Hmongb Lens, Hmongb Dlex Nchab, Hmongb Sad; includes Mong Leng)</li>

<li>Northern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Soud, Hmong Be/Hmongb Bes, Hmongb Ndrous)</li>

<li>Western Sichuan Miao (Chinese: 川苗, Chuān Miáo)</li></ul>

In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" (第一土语) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A colleague has talked with speakers of a number of these closely-related lects in the US, in Thailand and in China, and has had many discussions with Chinese linguists and foreign researchers or community development workers who have had extensive contact with speakers of these lects. As a result of these conversations this colleague believes that many of these lects are likely to have high inherent mutual intelligibility within the cluster. Culturally, while each sub-group prides itself on its own distinctives, they also recognize that other sub-groups within this category are culturally similar to themselves and accept the others as members of the same general ethnic group. However, this category of lects is internally varied and geographically scattered and mixed over a broad land area, and comprehensive intelligibility testing would be required to confirm reports of mutual intelligibility throughout the cluster.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_in_Laos">Varieties in Laos</h3></div>

According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a> the <a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a> (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (Hmong Daw); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_in_the_United_States">Varieties in the United States</h3></div>

Most Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."<a href="#cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div>

The three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by <a href="Hmong_Americans" title="Hmong Americans">Hmong Americans</a>. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated /m̥/ of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, /ã/; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div>

The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> (Phonemes particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)

<ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li>

<li>2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li>

<li>3rd Row: Pahawh</li></ol>

<caption><a href="Monophthong" title="Monophthong">Monophthongs</a>

</caption>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a>

</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a>

</th>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f8\/I_-_Hmong_word.wav\/I_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"I - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f8/I_-_Hmong_word.wav/I_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/6f\/W_-_Hmong_word.wav\/W_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"W - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6f/W_-_Hmong_word.wav/W_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a4\/U_-_Hmong_word.wav\/U_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"U - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/U_-_Hmong_word.wav/U_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/0\/01\/E_-_Hmong_word.wav\/E_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"E - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/E_-_Hmong_word.wav/E_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/8d\/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ee - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9c\/O_-_Hmong_word.wav\/O_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"O - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/O_-_Hmong_word.wav/O_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-7" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/ba\/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Oo - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav/Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-8" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/cb\/A_-_Hmong_word.wav\/A_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"A - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/A_-_Hmong_word.wav/A_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td style="background:#caff70; text-align:center;"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-9" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/36\/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav\/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Aa - Green Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav/Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

<a href="Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ã</a>~aŋ ⟨aa⟩ <big>𖬚, 𖬛</big>‡

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Diphthongs

</caption>

<th>

</th>

<th>Closing

</th>

<th>Centering

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Close component is front

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-10" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b7\/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ai - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b7/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

ai ⟨ai⟩ 𞄤𞄦, 𞄣‎ <big>𖬊, 𖬋</big>

</td>

<td style="background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-11" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/2c\/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ia - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

iə ⟨ia⟩ 𞄦𞄤, 𞄞‎ <big>𖬔, 𖬕</big>†

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Close component is central

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-12" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/40\/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Aw - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav/Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

aɨ ⟨aw⟩ 𞄤𞄬, 𞄢‎ <big>𖬎, 𖬏</big>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Close component is back

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-13" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9e\/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Au - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav/Au_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

au ⟨au⟩ 𞄤𞄨, 𞄠‎ <big>𖬄, 𖬅</big>

</td>

<td><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-14" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b4\/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ua - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav/Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

uə ⟨ua⟩ 𞄧𞄤, 𞄜‎ <big>𖬐, 𖬑</big>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added.

<caption>Dananshan Miao vowels

</caption>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a>

</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th>

<th>oral

</th>

<th>nasal

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">(<a href="Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>) (added)</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td align="center">en

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td align="center">oŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>aŋ

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Diphthongs

</caption>

<th>

</th>

<th>Closing

</th>

<th>Centering

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Close component is front

</td>

<td align="center">aj ⟨ai⟩

</td>

<td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">(absent)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">Close component is back

</td>

<td align="center">aw ⟨au⟩

</td>

<td align="center">wɒ ⟨ua⟩

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;">əw ⟨ou⟩ eβ ⟨eu⟩ (added)

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Dananshan [ɨ] occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written ⟨i⟩, much like Mandarin Chinese. /u/ is pronounced [y] after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong /jeβ/ ⟨ieu⟩, as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as /waj/.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div>

Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish <a href="Prenasalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalization">prenasalization</a> independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)

<ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li>

<li>2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li>

<li>3rd Row: Pahawh</li></ol>

<caption>Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg consonants

</caption>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a>

</th>

<th colspan="3"><a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>plain

</th>

<th><a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a>

</th>

<th>plain

</th>

<th><a href="Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a>

</th>

<th>plain

</th>

<th><a href="Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>

</th>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a> ⟨hm⟩ 𞄀𞄄‎ <big>𖬣𖬵</big>†

</td>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA">(<a href="Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">m̥ˡ</a>) ⟨hml⟩ 𞄠𞄄‎ <big>𖬠𖬰</big>†

</td>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a> ⟨hn⟩ 𞄅𞄄‎ <big>𖬩</big>†

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̥</a> ⟨hny⟩ 𞄐𞄄‎ <big>𖬣𖬰</big>†

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>(<a href="Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ⟨g⟩ marginal<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216-14">[14]</a>)

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_uvular_nasal" title="Voiced uvular nasal">⟨ɴ⟩</a> 𞄢‎

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="6"><a href="Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a>/ <a href="Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a>

</th>

<th>tenuis

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡ</a>) ⟨dl⟩ 𞄏‎ <big>𖬭𖬰</big>‡

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ⟨k⟩<a href="#endnote_k">***</a> 𞄎‎

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡʰ</a>) ⟨dlh⟩ 𞄏𞄄‎ <big>𖬭𖬵</big>‡

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> ⟨d⟩ 𞄏‎ <big>𖬞𖬰</big>†

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">murmured</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td style="background:#EEE8AA"><a href="Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">dʱ</a> ⟨dh⟩ 𞄏𞄄‎ <big>𖬞𖬵</big>†

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Prenasalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalization">prenasalized</a><a href="#endnote_nd">**</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿdˡ</a>) ⟨ndl⟩ 𞄝‎ <big>𖬭</big>‡

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td style="background:#CAFF70">(<a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtˡʰ</a>) ⟨ndlh⟩ 𞄝𞄄‎ <big>𖬭𖬴</big>‡

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>

</th>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">⟨ɻ⟩</a> 𞄣‎

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether /c/ is an affricate or /h/ is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with yin tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in <a href="Brackets" class="mw-redirect" title="Brackets">angled brackets</a>. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a /w/, which occurs only in foreign words.

<caption>Dananshan Miao consonants

</caption>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a>

</th>

<th colspan="3"><a href="Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Alveolar</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>plain

</th>

<th><a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a>

</th>

<th>plain

</th>

<th>sibilant

</th>

<th><a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral</a><a href="#endnote_l">*</a>

</th>

<th>plain

</th>

<th>sibilant

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a> ⟨hm⟩

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent)

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a> ⟨hn⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̥</a> ⟨hni⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> ⟨m⟩

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent)

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ⟨n⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> ⟨ni⟩

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8"><a href="Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ⟨ngg⟩ (added)

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="5"><a href="Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a>/ <a href="Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a>

</th>

<th>tenuis

</th>

<td><a href="Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> ⟨b⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡ</a>) ⟨bl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> ⟨d⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a> ⟨z⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡ</a>) ⟨dl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> ⟨dr⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a> ⟨zh⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a> ⟨j⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ⟨g⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> ⟨gh⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ⟨p⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">pˡʰ</a>) ⟨pl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> ⟨t⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tsʰ</a> ⟨c⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">tˡʰ</a>) ⟨tl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a> ⟨tr⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʂʰ</a> ⟨ch⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tɕʰ</a> ⟨q⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ⟨k⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">qʰ</a> ⟨kh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent)

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐp</a> ⟨nb⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpˡ</a>) ⟨nbl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿt</a> ⟨nd⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿts</a> ⟨nz⟩

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent)

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯʈ</a> ⟨ndr⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯtʂ</a> ⟨nzh⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtɕ</a> ⟨nj⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑk</a> ⟨ng⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰq</a> ⟨ngh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpʰ</a> ⟨np⟩

</td>

<td>(<a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpˡʰ</a>) ⟨npl⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʰ</a> ⟨nt⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtsʰ</a> ⟨nc⟩

</td>

<td style="background:#EECCE8">(absent)

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯʈʰ</a> ⟨ntr⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶯtʂʰ</a> ⟨nch⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtɕʰ</a> ⟨nq⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑkʰ</a> ⟨nk⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶰqʰ</a> ⟨nkh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> ⟨f⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> ⟨s⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> ⟨sh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> ⟨x⟩

</td>

<td><a href="Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> ⟨h⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> ⟨v⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> ⟨r⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>(<a href="Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>)

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<a href="#ref_l">^*</a> The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with <a href="Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral release</a> is controversial. A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with /l/ as the second element. The difference in analysis (e.g., between /pˡ/ and /pl/) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds. Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. /tˡʰ/, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>).

<a href="#ref_nd">^**</a> Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is /n/. However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving /l/.

<a href="#ref_k">^***</a> Only used in <a href="Hmong_RPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong RPA">Hmong RPA</a> and not in <a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>, since Hmong RPA uses <a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write keeb, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is k + ee + b = keeb, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just Keeb "𖬀" (3rd-Stage Version).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3></div>

Hmong <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> have simple structure: all syllables have an <a href="Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onset</a> consonant (except in a few particles<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220-16">[16]</a>), <a href="Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">nuclei</a> may consist of a monophthong or diphthong, and the only <a href="Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a> consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated [ŋ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214-17">[17]</a> Similarly, a short [ʔ] may accompany the low-falling <a href="Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a> tone.

Dananshan has a syllabic /l̩/ (written ⟨l⟩) in Chinese loans, such as lf 'two' and lx 'child'.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3></div>

Hmong is a <a href="Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a> and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct <a href="Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>.

<th>Tone

</th>

<th>Hmong Daw example<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Hmong/Mong RPA spelling</a>

</th>

<th>Vietnamese Hmong spelling

</th>

<th><a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>High ˥

</td>

<td>/pɔ́/ 'ball'

</td>

<td>pob <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-15" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/86\/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pob - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>poz

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄰‎

</td>

<td>𖬒𖬰𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mid ˧

</td>

<td>/pɔ/ 'spleen'

</td>

<td>po <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-16" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b6\/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Po - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b6/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav/Po_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>po

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨‎

</td>

<td>𖬓𖬰𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Low ˩

</td>

<td>/pɔ̀/ 'thorn'

</td>

<td>pos <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-17" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/5c\/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pos - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>pos

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄴‎

</td>

<td>𖬓𖬲𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>High-falling ˥˧

</td>

<td>/pɔ̂/ 'female'

</td>

<td>poj <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-18" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/72\/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Poj - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav/Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>pox

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄲‎

</td>

<td>𖬒𖬲𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mid-rising ˧˦

</td>

<td>/pɔ̌/ 'to throw'

</td>

<td>pov <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-19" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a7\/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pov - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>por

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄳‎

</td>

<td>𖬒𖬶𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Low checked (<a href="Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a>) tone ˩ (phrase final: long low rising ˨˩˧)

</td>

<td>/pɔ̰̀/ 'to see'

</td>

<td>pom <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-20" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/56\/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pom - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>pov

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄱‎

</td>

<td>𖬒𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mid-falling <a href="Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a> tone ˧˩

</td>

<td>/pɔ̤̂/ 'grandmother'

</td>

<td>pog <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-21" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/71\/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav\/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pog - Hmong word.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav/Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ

</td>

<td>pol

</td>

<td>𞄚𞄨𞄵‎

</td>

<td>𖬓𖬪𖬵

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make <a href="Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> plosives <a href="Breathy_voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathy voiced">breathy voiced</a> (浊送气), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong g-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with <a href="Entering_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Entering tone">entering tone</a>, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.

Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:

<caption>Dananshan Miao tone

</caption>

<th>Tone

</th>

<th>IPA

</th>

<th>Orthography

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>1 high falling

</td>

<td>˦˧ 43

</td>

<td>b

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3 top

</td>

<td>˥ 5

</td>

<td>d

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>5 high

</td>

<td>˦ 4

</td>

<td>t

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>7 mid

</td>

<td>˧ 3

</td>

<td>k

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2 mid falling

</td>

<td>˧˩ 31

</td>

<td>x

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>4 low falling (breathy)

</td>

<td>˨˩̤ 21

</td>

<td>l

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>6 low rising (breathy)

</td>

<td>˩˧̤ 13

</td>

<td>s

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>8 mid rising

</td>

<td>˨˦ 24

</td>

<td>f

</td></tr></tbody></table>

So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly playing a <a href="Jew's_harp" title="Jew's harp">Jew's harp</a> to convey vowel sounds.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hmong_writing" title="Hmong writing">Hmong writing</a></div>

Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of <a href="Anne_Fadiman" title="Anne Fadiman">Anne Fadiman</a>, author of <a href="The_Spirit_Catches_You_and_You_Fall_Down" title="The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down">The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down</a>, "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a>

Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the <a href="Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.<a href="#cite_note-SmithNJp44-21">[21]</a>

Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, the <a href="Lao_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao alphabet">Lao alphabet</a>, the <a href="Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>, the <a href="Thai_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai alphabet">Thai alphabet</a>, and the <a href="Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a>. In addition, in 1959 <a href="Shong_Lue_Yang" title="Shong Lue Yang">Shong Lue Yang</a>, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called <a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh</a>. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a>

In the 1980s, <a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong</a> script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia. The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

The <a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a> (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a> In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell Hmoob as "Hmong," and Liab Lis is spelled as <a href="Lia_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Lia Lee">Lia Lee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fadiman291-20">[20]</a>

The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence_between_orthographies">Correspondence between orthographies</h3></div>

The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses ⟨ng⟩; RPA uses ⟨h⟩ for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses ⟨h⟩ (and ⟨r⟩) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on ⟨t, x, k⟩ vs. ⟨r, s, q⟩ for the same.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels_2">Vowels</h4></div>

<th>Pinyin

</th>

<th>Vietnamese

</th>

<th>Pahawh

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">a

</td>

<td>𖬖, 𖬗

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">ang

</td>

<td>𖬚, 𖬛

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">ai

</td>

<td>𖬊, 𖬋

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">au

</td>

<td>âu

</td>

<td>𖬄, 𖬅

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>ơư

</td>

<td>𖬎, 𖬏

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">e

</td>

<td>ê

</td>

<td>𖬈, 𖬉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>eng

</td>

<td>ênh

</td>

<td>𖬀, 𖬁

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>eu

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">i

</td>

<td>𖬂, 𖬃

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>iê

</td>

<td>𖬔, 𖬕

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">o

</td>

<td>𖬒, 𖬓

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ong

</td>

<td>ông

</td>

<td>𖬌, 𖬍

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ou

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">u

</td>

<td>u

</td>

<td>𖬆, 𖬇

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">ua

</td>

<td>uô

</td>

<td>𖬐, 𖬑

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>i

</td>

<td>ư

</td>

<td>𖬘, 𖬙

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants_2">Consonants</h4></div>

<th>Dananshan

</th>

<th>Vietnamese

</th>

<th>Pahawh

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>j

</td>

<td>ch

</td>

<td>𖬯

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">q

</td>

<td>𖬧

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nj

</td>

<td>nd

</td>

<td>𖬤𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">nq

</td>

<td>𖬨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>đ

</td>

<td>𖬞𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>đh

</td>

<td>𖬞𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">dl

</td>

<td>đr

</td>

<td>𖬭𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tl

</td>

<td>đl

</td>

<td>𖬭𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>nđr

</td>

<td>𖬭

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>nđl

</td>

<td>𖬭𖬴

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">f

</td>

<td>ph

</td>

<td>𖬜𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">h

</td>

<td>𖬟

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>g

</td>

<td>c

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>k

</td>

<td>kh

</td>

<td>𖬩𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ng

</td>

<td>g

</td>

<td>𖬢

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nk

</td>

<td>nkh

</td>

<td>𖬫𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">l

</td>

<td>𖬞

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">hl

</td>

<td>𖬥

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">m

</td>

<td>𖬦

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">hm

</td>

<td>𖬣𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>mn

</td>

<td>𖬠

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>–

</td>

<td>hmn

</td>

<td>𖬠𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">n

</td>

<td>𖬬

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">hn

</td>

<td>hn

</td>

<td>𖬩

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ngg

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ni

</td>

<td>nh

</td>

<td>𖬮𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>hni

</td>

<td>hnh

</td>

<td>𖬣𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>b

</td>

<td>p

</td>

<td>𖬪𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>p

</td>

<td>ph

</td>

<td>𖬝𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nb

</td>

<td>b

</td>

<td>𖬨𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>np

</td>

<td>mf

</td>

<td>𖬡𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bl

</td>

<td>pl

</td>

<td>𖬟𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pl

</td>

<td>fl

</td>

<td>𖬪

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nbl

</td>

<td>bl

</td>

<td>𖬫𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>npl

</td>

<td>mfl

</td>

<td>𖬡𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>gh

</td>

<td>k

</td>

<td>𖬦𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>kh

</td>

<td>qh

</td>

<td>𖬣

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ngh

</td>

<td>ng

</td>

<td>𖬬𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nkh

</td>

<td>nkr

</td>

<td>𖬬𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>dr

</td>

<td>tr

</td>

<td>𖬡

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tr

</td>

<td>rh

</td>

<td>𖬢𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ndr

</td>

<td>r

</td>

<td>𖬜𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ntr

</td>

<td>nr

</td>

<td>𖬨𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sh

</td>

<td>s

</td>

<td>𖬤𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>d

</td>

<td>t

</td>

<td>𖬧𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>t

</td>

<td>th

</td>

<td>𖬟𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nd

</td>

<td>nt

</td>

<td>𖬩𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nt

</td>

<td>nth

</td>

<td>𖬫

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>zh

</td>

<td>ts

</td>

<td>𖬝𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ch

</td>

<td>tsh

</td>

<td>𖬪𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nzh

</td>

<td>nts

</td>

<td>𖬝

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nch

</td>

<td>ntsh

</td>

<td>𖬯𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>z

</td>

<td>tx

</td>

<td>𖬯𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>c

</td>

<td>cx

</td>

<td>𖬦𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nz

</td>

<td>nz

</td>

<td>𖬢𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nc

</td>

<td>nx

</td>

<td>𖬥𖬵

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="3">v

</td>

<td>𖬜

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>w

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>s

</td>

<td>x

</td>

<td>𖬮

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>x

</td>

<td>sh

</td>

<td>𖬧𖬰

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">y

</td>

<td>z

</td>

<td>𖬤

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>r

</td>

<td>j

</td>

<td>𖬥𖬰

</td></tr></tbody></table>

There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.

<th rowspan="2">Tone class

</th>

<th rowspan="2">Tone number

</th>

<th rowspan="2">Dananshan orthog.

</th>

<th colspan="2">RPA

</th>

<th rowspan="2">Vietnamese Hmong

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Hmoob

</th>

<th>Moob

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">平 or A

</td>

<td>b ˦˧

</td>

<td colspan="2">b ˥

</td>

<td>z

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>x ˧˩

</td>

<td colspan="2">j ˥˧

</td>

<td>x

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">上 or B

</td>

<td>d ˥

</td>

<td colspan="2">v ˧˦

</td>

<td>r

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>g

</td>

<td>s

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">去 or C

</td>

<td>t ˦

</td>

<td colspan="3">(unmarked) ˧

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>s ˩˧̤

</td>

<td colspan="2">g ˧˩̤

</td>

<td>l

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">入 or D

</td>

<td>k ˧

</td>

<td colspan="2">s ˩

</td>

<td>s

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>f ˨˦

</td>

<td colspan="2">m ˩̰ ~ d ˨˩˧

</td>

<td>v ~ k

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Tones 4 and 7 merged in Hmoob Dawb, whereas tones 4 and 6 merged in Mong Leeg.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

Example: lus Hmoob /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / 𞄉𞄧𞄴𞄀𞄄𞄰𞄩‎ / (White Hmong) / lug Moob / 𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰‎ / (Mong Leng) / lol Hmongb (Dananshan) / lus Hmôngz (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div>

Hmong is an <a href="Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> <a href="Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a> language in which <a href="Adjectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectives">adjectives</a> and <a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> follow the <a href="Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3></div>

Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)

The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">grammatical persons</a> and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the <a href="Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:

<ol><li>1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA</li>

<li>2nd Row: Vietnamese Hmong</li>

<li>3rd Row: Pahawh Hmong</li>

<li>4th Row: Nyiakeng Puachue</li></ol>

<caption>White Hmong Pronouns

</caption>

<th>Number:</th>

<th>Singular</th>

<th>Plural

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>First

</th>

<td>kuv

cur 𖬆𖬲

𞄎𞄧𞄳‎

</td>

<td>wb

ưz 𖬘𖬰𖬮𖬰

𞄬𞄰‎

</td>

<td>peb

pêz 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵

𞄚𞄪𞄰‎

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Second

</th>

<td>koj

cox 𖬒𖬲

𞄎𞄨𞄲‎

</td>

<td>neb

nêz 𖬈𖬰𖬬

𞄅𞄪𞄰‎

</td>

<td>nej

nêx 𖬈𖬲𖬬

𞄅𞄪𞄲‎

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Third

</th>

<td>nws

nưs 𖬙𖬲𖬬

𞄅𞄬𞄴‎

</td>

<td>nkawd

gơưk 𖬎𖬱𖬢

𞄇𞄤𞄶𞄬‎

</td>

<td>lawv

lơưr 𖬎𖬶𖬞

𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Green Hmong Pronouns

</caption>

<th>Number:</th>

<th>Singular</th>

<th>Plural

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>First

</th>

<td>kuv

cur 𖬆𖬲

𞄎𞄧𞄳‎

</td>

<td>ib

iz 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰

𞄦𞄰‎

</td>

<td>peb

pêz 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵

𞄚𞄪𞄰‎

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Second

</th>

<td>koj

cox 𖬒𖬲

𞄎𞄨𞄲‎

</td>

<td>meb

mêz 𖬈𖬰𖬦

𞄀𞄪𞄰‎

</td>

<td>mej

mêx 𖬈𖬲𖬦

𞄀𞄪𞄲‎

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Third

</th>

<td>nwg

nưs 𖬙𖬶𖬬

𞄅𞄬𞄵‎

</td>

<td>ob tug

oz tus 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵

𞄨𞄰𞄃𞄧𞄵‎

</td>

<td>puab

puôz 𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵

𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classifiers">Classifiers</h4></div>

<a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifiers</a> are one of the features recurrently found in <a href="Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">languages of Southeast Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817-26">[26]</a> In Hmong, the noun does not directly follow a <a href="Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numeral</a>, and a classifier or an adjective is required to count objects. Here are examples from Mong Leeg (Green Hmong):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624–625-27">[27]</a>

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</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>ob tug dlev𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄨𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ 𞄝𞄪𞄳‎two CLF dog'two dogs'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(tug)(𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵)(𞄃𞄧𞄶)‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyuas𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴‎little</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>ob (tug) nyuas dlev𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 (𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵) 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄨𞄰‎ (𞄃𞄧𞄶)‎ 𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴‎ 𞄝𞄪𞄳‎two CLF little dog'two little dogs'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

Also, classifiers may occur with a noun without any numerals for <a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definite</a> and/or <a href="Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">specific</a> reference in Hmong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199322–26-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175-29">[29]</a> The following examples are again from Green Hmong:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625–626-30">[30]</a>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum𖬆𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄶‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>kuv pum tug dlev𖬆𖬲 𖬆𖬪𖬵 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ 𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ 𞄝𞄪𞄳‎1SG see CLF dog'I saw the dog.' (definite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum𖬆𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ib𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰𞄦𞄰‎one</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div>kuv pum ib tug dlev𖬆𖬲 𖬆𖬪𖬵 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ 𞄦𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ 𞄝𞄪𞄳‎1SG see one CLF dog'I saw a (specific) dog.' (indefinite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎1SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pum𖬆𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄧𞄱‎see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ob𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰𞄨𞄰‎two</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tug𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄶‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlev𖬉𖬭𖬰𞄝𞄪𞄳‎dog</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hov𖬒𖬶𖬟𞄄𞄨𞄳‎DEM:3</div>kuv pum ob tug dlev hov𖬆𖬲 𖬆𖬪𖬵 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬉𖬭𖬰 𖬒𖬶𖬟𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄚𞄧𞄱‎ 𞄨𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄧𞄶‎ 𞄝𞄪𞄳‎ 𞄄𞄨𞄳‎1SG see two CLF dog DEM:3'I saw those two dogs.' (definite and specific)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

Moreover, nominal possessive phrases are expressed with a classifier;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622–624-31">[31]</a> however, it may be omitted when the referent of the possessed noun is <a href="Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">inalienable</a> from the possessor as shown in the following Hmong Daw (White Hmong) phrases:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">[32]</a>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nws𖬙𖬲𖬬𞄅𞄬𞄴‎3SG</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rab𖬖𖬲𖬡𞄖𞄤𞄰‎CLF</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ntaj𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵𞄂𞄤𞄲‎sword</div>nws rab ntaj𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬖𖬲𖬡 𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵𞄅𞄬𞄴‎ 𞄖𞄤𞄰‎ 𞄂𞄤𞄲‎3SG CLF sword'his sword'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<a href="Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relativization</a> is also expressed with classifiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623-33">[33]</a>

Although absent in <a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, definite reference by bare classifier constructions are found in <a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> (<a href="Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a>) and <a href="Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a> (<a href="Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-dai</a>), which is the case for possessive classifier constructions as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230–231-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3></div>

Hmong is an <a href="Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">isolating language</a> in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a>. <a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a>, <a href="Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, <a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, <a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, and <a href="Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> are indicated lexically.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serial_verb_construction">Serial verb construction</h4></div>

Hmong verbs can be <a href="Serial_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial verb">serialized</a>, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.

Here is an example from White Hmong:

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">YamZav𖬖𖬤𞄘𞄤𞄱‎Thing</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">zoojông𖬍𖬥𖬰𞄋𞄩‎best</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshajtshax𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲‎very</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">plaws,plơưs,𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵,𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴‎,full,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nejnêx𖬈𖬲𖬬𞄅𞄪𞄲‎2PL</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuavzuôr𖬐𖬲𖬤𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳‎IRR</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tsumtsuv𖬆𖬝𖬰𞄁𞄧𞄱‎must</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mus,mus,𖬇𖬰𖬦,𞄀𞄧𞄴‎,go,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nrhiav,nriêz,𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰,𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳‎,seek,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nug,nuv,𖬇𖬲𖬬,𞄅𞄧𞄶‎,ask,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xyuas,shuôs,𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰,𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴‎,examine,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">saibsaiz𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰‎look</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">luagluôv𖬑𖬶𖬞𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶‎others</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">muajmuôj𖬐𖬰𖬦𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲‎have</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kevcêr𖬉𞄎𞄪𞄳‎services</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pabpaz𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄤𞄰‎variations</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">homhov𖬒𖬟𞄄𞄨𞄱‎type</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dab_tsiđaz_tsi𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰_𖬃𖬝𖬰𞄏𞄤𞄰‎_𞄁𞄦‎what</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyobnhoz𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵𞄐𞄨𞄰‎be.at</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ncigndil𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰𞄌𞄦𞄶‎around</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ibib𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰𞄦𞄰‎one</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">cheeb_tsamqênhz_tsav𖬀𖬶𖬧_𖬖𖬝𖬰𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰‎_𞄁𞄤𞄱‎area</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ntawmntơưv𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱‎at</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nej.nêx.𖬈𖬲𖬬.𞄅𞄪𞄲‎.2PL</div>Yam zoo tshaj plaws, nej yuav tsum mus, nrhiav, nug, xyuas, saib luag muaj kev pab hom dab_tsi nyob ncig ib cheeb_tsam ntawm nej.Zav jông tshax plơưs, nêx zuôr tsuv mus, nriêz, nuv, shuôs, saiz luôv muôj cêr paz hov đaz_tsi nhoz ndil ib qênhz_tsav ntơưv nêx.𖬖𖬤 𖬍𖬥𖬰 𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵, 𖬈𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬆𖬝𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬦, 𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰, 𖬇𖬲𖬬, 𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰, 𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵 𖬑𖬶𖬞 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬒𖬟 𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰_𖬃𖬝𖬰 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬧_𖬖𖬝𖬰 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬲𖬬.𞄘𞄤𞄱‎ 𞄋𞄩‎ 𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲‎ 𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴‎, 𞄅𞄪𞄲‎ 𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳‎ 𞄁𞄧𞄱‎ 𞄀𞄧𞄴‎, 𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳‎, 𞄅𞄧𞄶‎, 𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴‎, 𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰‎ 𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶‎ 𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲‎ 𞄎𞄪𞄳‎ 𞄚𞄤𞄰‎ 𞄄𞄨𞄱‎ 𞄏𞄤𞄰‎_𞄁𞄦‎ 𞄐𞄨𞄰‎ 𞄌𞄦𞄶‎ 𞄦𞄰‎ 𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰‎_𞄁𞄤𞄱‎ 𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱‎ 𞄅𞄪𞄲‎.Thing best very full, 2PL IRR must go, seek, ask, examine, look others have services variations type what be.at around one area at 2PL'The best thing you can do is to explore your neighborhood and find out what services are available.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense">Tense</h4></div>

Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."

Here is an example from White Hmong:

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Nag hmoNav hmo𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨‎yesterday</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuvcur𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">musmus𖬇𖬰𖬦𞄀𞄧𞄴‎go</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tomtov𖬒𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄨𞄱‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">khw.khư.𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰.𞄎𞄄𞄬‎.market</div>{Nag hmo} kuv mus tom khw.{Nav hmo} cur mus tov khư.𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵 𖬆𖬲 𖬇𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬧𖬵 𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰.𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨‎ 𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄀𞄧𞄴‎ 𞄃𞄨𞄱‎ 𞄎𞄄𞄬‎.yesterday I go LOC market'I went to the market yesterday.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspect">Aspect</h4></div>

Aspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones:

Progressive: (Mong Leeg) taab tom + verb, (White Hmong) tab tom + verb = situation in progress

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PuabPuôz𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎they</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">taab tomtangz tov𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬒𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄥𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄨𞄱‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">haushâus𖬅𖬰𖬟𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨‎drink</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">dlej.đrêx𖬈𖬲𖬭.𞄏𞄪𞄲‎.water</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Mong Leeg)    </div>Puab {taab tom} haus dlej.Puôz {tangz tov} hâus đrêx𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵 {𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬒𖬧𖬵} 𖬅𖬰𖬟 𖬈𖬲𖬭.𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤‎ {𞄃𞄥𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄨𞄱‎} 𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨‎ 𞄏𞄪𞄲‎.they PROG drink water'They are drinking water.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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Taab/tab tom + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when taab/tab tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker yuav. Note that the taab tom construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.

Perfective: sentence/clause + lawm = completed situation

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Lawm at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway:

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tub𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄰‎boy</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄤𞄨‎get</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rab𖬖𖬲𖬡𞄖𞄤𞄰‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hneev,𖬀𖬲𖬩,𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫‎,crossbow</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nws𖬙𖬲𖬬𞄅𞄬𞄴‎he</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">thiaj𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎then</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mus𖬇𖬰𖬦𞄀𞄧𞄴‎go</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ua si𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵𞄧𞄤‎ 𞄊𞄦‎play</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lawm.𖬎𖬰𖬞.𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong)   </div>Tus tub tau rab hneev, nws thiaj mus {ua si} lawm.𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬧𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬡 𖬀𖬲𖬩, 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬦 𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵 𖬎𖬰𖬞.𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ 𞄃𞄧𞄰‎ 𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ 𞄖𞄤𞄰‎ 𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫‎, 𞄅𞄬𞄴‎ 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎ 𞄀𞄧𞄴‎ {𞄧𞄤‎ 𞄊𞄦‎} 𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎.CLF boy get CLF crossbow he then go play PFV'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.' / 'The boy went off to play because he got the bow.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using tau, which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. tau + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, tau + verb translates to the past tense in English.

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Lawv𖬎𖬶𖬞𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎they</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄤𞄨‎attain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">noj𖬒𖬲𖬬𞄅𞄨𞄲‎eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nqaij𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦‎meat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nyug.𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵.𞄐𞄧𞄵‎.beef</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong)   </div>Lawv tau noj nqaij nyug.𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬧𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬬 𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵.𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ 𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ 𞄅𞄨𞄲‎ 𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦‎ 𞄐𞄧𞄵‎.they attain eat meat beef'They ate beef.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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Tau is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. nag hmo, last night). Tau can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Thaum𖬄𖬟𖬰𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨‎when</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">txog𖬓𖬯𖬵𞄔𞄨𞄵‎arrive</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">peb𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄪𞄰‎New</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">caug𖬅𖬲𖬯𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨‎Year</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lawm𖬎𖬰𖬞𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">sawv daws𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵 𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ 𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬‎everybody</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">thiaj𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎then</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄤𞄨‎attain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hnav𖬗𖬩𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤‎wear</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">khaub ncaws𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ 𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬‎clothes</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshiab.𖬔𖬪𖬰.𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤‎.new</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(White Hmong)   </div>Thaum txog peb caug lawm {sawv daws} thiaj tau hnav {khaub ncaws} tshiab.𖬄𖬟𖬰 𖬓𖬯𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬎𖬰𖬞 {𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵 𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰} 𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰 𖬧𖬵 𖬗𖬩 {𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰} 𖬔𖬪𖬰.𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨‎ 𞄔𞄨𞄵‎ 𞄚𞄪𞄰‎ 𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨‎ 𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬‎ {𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬‎ 𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬‎} 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤‎ 𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ 𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤‎ {𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ 𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬‎} 𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤‎.when arrive New Year PFV everybody then attain wear clothes new'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

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When tau follows the main verb (i.e. verb + tau), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav𖬛𖬮𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav𖬛𖬮𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ib plag,𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵,𞄦𞄰‎ 𞄡𞄤𞄵‎,awhile,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">xaav𖬛𖬮𞄆𞄥𞄳‎think</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tau𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄤𞄨‎get</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tswv yim.𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤.𞄁𞄬𞄳‎ 𞄘𞄦𞄱‎.idea</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Mong Leeg)   </div>Kuv xaav xaav {ib plag}, kuv xaav tau {tswv yim}.𖬆𖬲 𖬛𖬮 𖬛𖬮 {𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵}, 𖬆𖬲 𖬛𖬮 𖬧𖬵 𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤.𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ 𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ {𞄦𞄰‎ 𞄡𞄤𞄵‎}, 𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄆𞄥𞄳‎ 𞄃𞄤𞄨‎ {𞄁𞄬𞄳‎ 𞄘𞄦𞄱‎}.I think think awhile, I think get idea'I thought it over and got an idea.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

Tau is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) nrhiav tau, to look for; caum tau, to chase; yug tau, to give birth.

The grammatical marker yuav is analyzed by some scholars as a future tense marker<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottin1978-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984-37">[37]</a> when it appears preceding a verb:

<span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-22" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/63\/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav\/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Kuv yuav moog.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/63/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav/Kuv_yuav_moog.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a>ⓘ  </div>Kuv yuav moog.𖬆𖬲 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬍𖬶𖬦.𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ 𞄀𞄩𞄵‎.'I will be going.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

Yuav can also be analyzed as a marker of <a href="Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">irrealis mood</a>, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite201480–81-38">[38]</a> That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tsov𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰𞄁𞄨𞄳‎Tiger</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hais tias,𖬋𖬰𖬟 𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵,𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦‎ 𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤‎,say,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">"Kuv"𖬆𖬲"𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshaib𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎hungry</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tshaib𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎hungry</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">plab𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵𞄡𞄤𞄰‎stomach</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li𖬃𖬞𞄉𞄦‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kuv𖬆𖬲𞄎𞄧𞄳‎I</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuav𖬐𖬲𖬤𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="irrealis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IRR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">noj𖬒𖬲𖬬𞄅𞄨𞄲‎eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">koj".𖬒𖬲."𞄎𞄨𞄲‎".you</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(from a White Hmong folk tale)   </div>Tus Tsov {hais tias}, "Kuv tshaib tshaib plab li kuv yuav noj koj".𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰 {𖬋𖬰𖬟 𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵}, "𖬆𖬲 𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰 𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰 𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵 𖬃𖬞 𖬆𖬲 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬒𖬲𖬬 𖬒𖬲."𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ 𞄁𞄨𞄳‎ {𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦‎ 𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤‎}, "𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎ 𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦‎ 𞄡𞄤𞄰‎ 𞄉𞄦‎ 𞄎𞄧𞄳‎ 𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ 𞄅𞄨𞄲‎ 𞄎𞄨𞄲‎".CLF Tiger say, I hungry hungry stomach INT I IRR eat you'The Tiger said, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Tus𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵𞄃𞄧𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Qav𖬗𖬦𖬵𞄗𞄤𞄳‎Frog</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tsis𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰𞄁𞄦𞄴‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">paub𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨‎know</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yuav𖬐𖬲𖬤𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="irrealis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IRR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ua𖬑𖬮𖬰𞄧𞄤‎do</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li𖬃𖬞𞄉𞄦‎ </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">cas𖬗𖬲𖬯𞄈𞄤𞄴‎what</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">li.𖬃𖬞.𞄉𞄦‎.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></div>Tus Qav tsis paub yuav ua li cas li.𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬗𖬦𖬵 𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰 𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬞 𖬗𖬲𖬯 𖬃𖬞.𞄃𞄧𞄴‎ 𞄗𞄤𞄳‎ 𞄁𞄦𞄴‎ 𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨‎ 𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤‎ 𞄧𞄤‎ 𞄉𞄦‎ 𞄈𞄤𞄴‎ 𞄉𞄦‎.CLF Frog NEG know IRR do {} what INT'The frog didn't know what to do.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3></div>

Hmong vocabulary comes from several sources: native Hmongic words, Chinese borrowings, and Tibeto-Burman borrowings,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010242-39">[39]</a> as well as additional borrowings from the national languages where Hmong communities live outside China, including borrowings from Thai/Lao and English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164-40">[40]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domains">Domains</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colors">Colors</h4></div>

Many Hmong and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language tend to use the word xim (a borrowing from Thai/Lao) as the word for 'color', while the native Hmong word for 'color' is kob. For example, xim appears in the sentence Liab yog xim ntawm kev phom sij with the meaning "Red is the color of danger / The red color is of danger".

List of colors:

The following color terms are given as in Hmong Daw (HD; White Hmong) and Mong Leeg (ML; Green Hmong).

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Several of the Hmong terms for colors are native roots that date back to at least the Proto-Hmongic period, such as dub 'black', dawb 'white', and liab 'red', while daj 'yellow' was a very early borrowing from Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatliff2010243-41">[41]</a> Several other terms are more recent innovations.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numbers">Numbers</h4></div>

<th>Numeral</th>

<th>Hmong Numeral</th>

<th>Pahawh Hmong</th>

<th>Hmong RPA</th>

<th>Hmong Loanwords</th>

<th>Pahawh Symbols

</th></tr>

<td>Ntxaiv</td>

<td>𖭐 (Ones)

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>Plaub</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>𖭛 (Tens)

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>Nees nkaum</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>Nees nkaum ib</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>Plaub caug</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>Plaub caug ib</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>𖭜 (Hundreds)

</td></tr>

<td>Ib txhiab</td>

<td>𖭜𖭐 (Thousands)

</td></tr>

<td>Kaum txhiab</td>

<td>𖭝 (Ten thousand)

</td></tr>

<td>Ib puas txhiab</td>

<td>𖭝𖭐 (Hundred Thousands)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭞 (Millions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭞𖭐 (Ten Millions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭟 (Hundred Millions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭟𖭐 (Billions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭠 (Ten Billions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭠𖭐 (Hundred Billions)

</td></tr>

<td>𖭡 (Trillions)

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

The number 57023 would be written as 𖭕𖭗𖭐𖭒𖭓.

<th>Pahawh Hmong</th>

<th>Hmong RPA</th>

<th>Hmong Loanwords (from Thai/Lao)

</th></tr>

<td>Sunday</td>

<td>Vas thiv

</td></tr>

<td>Monday</td>

<td>Vas cas

</td></tr>

<td>Tuesday</td>

<td>Vas as qhas

</td></tr>

<td>Wednesday</td>

<td>Vas phuv

</td></tr>

<td>Thursday</td>

<td>Vas phab hav

</td></tr>

<td>Friday</td>

<td>Vas xuv

</td></tr>

<td>Saturday</td>

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

A sentence like "Today is Monday", using only non-borrowed, non-calqued terms, would be said Hnub no yog zwj hli, rather than Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday in Hmong. However, Hmong speakers in English-speaking countries sometimes use Thai/Lao loanwords or English terms for the days of the week instead, as in Mong Leng ua ntej nub Saturday 'before Saturday'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021167-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Months_of_the_year">Months of the year</h4></div>

<th>Months</th>

<th>Pahawh Hmong (Formal)</th>

<th>Hmong RPA</th>

<th>Informal

</th></tr>

<td>January</td>

<td>[Lub] Ib hlis

</td></tr>

<td>February</td>

<td>[Lub] Ob hlis

</td></tr>

<td>March</td>

<td>[Lub] Peb hlis

</td></tr>

<td>April</td>

<td>[Lub] Plaub hlis

</td></tr>

<td>[Lub] Tsib hlis

</td></tr>

<td>[Lub] Rau hlis

</td></tr>

<td>[Lub] Xya hlis

</td></tr>

<td>August</td>

<td>[Lub] Yim hlis

</td></tr>

<td>September</td>

<td>Tsiab kub leej</td>

<td>[Lub] Cuaj hlis

</td></tr>

<td>October</td>

<td>Peem tshais</td>

<td>[Lub] Kaum hlis

</td></tr>

<td>November</td>

<td>Looj keev txheem</td>

<td>[Lub] Kaum ib hlis

</td></tr>

<td>December</td>

<td>Npuag cawb</td>

<td>[Lub] Kaum ob hlis

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldwide_usage">Worldwide usage</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presence_in_community_and_education">Presence in community and education</h3></div>

The Hmong language has found a significant presence in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, particularly in <a href="Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on 5 November 1975.<a href="#cite_note-MNopedia_a771-45">[45]</a>

The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the <a href="University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.<a href="#cite_note-College_of_Liberal_Arts-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translation">Translation</h3></div>

In February 2012, Microsoft released "Hmong Daw" as an option in <a href="Microsoft_Translator" title="Microsoft Translator">Bing Translator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In May 2013, <a href="Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as Hmong).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

Research in nursing shows that when translating from English to Hmong, the translator must take into account that Hmong comes from an <a href="Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> and equivalent concepts may not exist. For example, the word and concept for "prostate" does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_texts">Sample texts</h2></div>

Article 1 of the <a href="Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in Hmong:<blockquote><a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a>:<a href="#cite_note-auto-50">[50]</a><blockquote>𖬑𖬦𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬇𖬲𖬤 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬨𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬋𖬯. 𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬖𖬰𖬮 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬖𖬞𖬰 𖬎𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬔𖬤𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬆𖬝𖬰 𖬒𖬲𖬯 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬰 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬙 𖬂𖬰𖬧𖬵.</blockquote><a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue</a>:<a href="#cite_note-auto-50">[50]</a><blockquote>𞄔𞄄𞄧𞄤𞄃𞄧𞄴𞄅𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄵𞄉𞄨𞄴 𞄀𞄧𞄲𞄤𞄎𞄪𞄳𞄘𞄬𞄲𞄚𞄄𞄲𞄫𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄜𞄤𞄵𞄨𞄋𞄨𞄴 𞄄𞄤𞄳𞄨𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄈𞄤𞄦. 𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬𞄆𞄤𞄲 𞄑𞄨𞄵𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄉𞄤𞄲𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄲𞄬 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤𞄁𞄧𞄱𞄈𞄨𞄲 𞄧𞄤 𞄎𞄪𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄎𞄪𞄧𞄳 𞄧𞄤𞄎𞄬𞄳𞄃𞄦𞄲.‎</blockquote><a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Hmong RPA</a>:<a href="#cite_note-auto-50">[50]</a><blockquote>Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij.</blockquote>Vietnamese Hmong:<a href="#cite_note-auto-50">[50]</a><blockquote>Cxuô tus nênhl zul los muôx cêr zưx fênhx thiêz siz npâul jôs hâur txox chai. Lơưr xax ndol luz lax thơưx thiêz luz siêz thiêz iz lênhl zuôr tsuv chox uô cê ntơưv iz lênhl ntơưv txôx cêr uô cưr tiz.</blockquote>Hmong IPA:<blockquote>tsʰuə˧ tu˩ neŋ˧˩̤ ʝu˧˩̤ lɒ˩ muə˥˧ ke˧˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ ᵐbau˧˩̤ ʐɒ˩ hau˧˦ tsɒ˥˧ cai˧. Laɨ˧˦ sa˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ lu˦ la˥˧ tʰaɨ˥˧ tʰiə˦ lu˦ ʂiə˦ tʰiə˦ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ʝuə˧˦ tʂu˩̰ cɒ˥˧ uə˧ ke˧ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˧˦ uə˧ kɨ˧˦ ti˥˧.</blockquote>English:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><blockquote>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</blockquote></blockquote>

Sample text in Hmong RPA, Pahawh Hmong, and Hmong IPA:<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><blockquote>Hmong RPA:<blockquote>Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev.</blockquote>Pahawh Hmong:<blockquote>𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬘𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬀𖬶 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬂𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬰𖬦𖬰 𖬘𖬪𖬰 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬞. 𖬔𖬶𖬬 𖬌𖬩 𖬖𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬝𖬰 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬟𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵, 𖬙𖬲𖬮 𖬃𖬞: 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮, 𖬇𖬰𖬤 𖬄𖬲𖬞, 𖬄𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬕𖬰𖬞, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬲𖬦 𖬃𖬰𖬞 𖬗𖬲. 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬃𖬞 𖬒𖬶𖬯 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮. 𖬖𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬃𖬰𖬤𖬵 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵, 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬐𖬶, 𖬆𖬶𖬯𖬵 𖬃𖬯, 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬗 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬦𖬰 𖬀𖬦 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬖𖬤 𖬅𖬰𖬢 𖬃𖬞 𖬘𖬞 𖬊𖬲𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬. 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬖𖬰𖬤𖬰 𖬁𖬰𖬤𖬰, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬲𖬝𖬵 𖬙𖬶𖬤, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬖𖬯 𖬘𖬟, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬆𖬰𖬥, 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬑𖬪𖬰 𖬀𖬲𖬟.</blockquote> Hmong IPA:<blockquote>mɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ ɲɨ˥˧ keŋ˦ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ʝeŋ˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ti˦ tsʰi˥˧ tʂʰɨ˩̰ ʂi˩̰ lɒ˩. Niə˥˧ n̥ɒŋ˦ ta˩̰ ʂi˩̰ nɒ˧ tʂeŋ˩̰ muə˥˧ ɲɒ˦ tʰɒŋ˦ pˡaɨ˩ hau˧˦ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦, sɨ˩: e˩ siə˩, ʝu˩ lau˧˦, au˧˦ ta˩ li˧ə˩, tʰiə˦ a˩ me˩ li˧˩ ka˩. Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ M̥ɒŋ˦ nɒ˧ ʝɒ˧˩̤ tʰɒŋ˥˧ li˧ cɒ˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ɲɒ˦ ʂa˦ e˩ siə˩. Ta˦ ʂi˩ nɨ˩ muə˥˧ nɨ˩ puə˧˦ pʰeŋ˥˧ teŋ˥˧ tu˧˩̤, mɒ˥˧ kuə˦, tsu˥˧ ci˧, mɒŋ˥˧ ka˧˦ mɒ˥˧ cɒ˥˧, tʰiə˦ tsʰeŋ˦ meŋ˩̰ mɒŋ˥˧ meŋ˥˧ kʰeŋ˥˧ i˦ ʝa˩̰ ᵑɡau˩ li˧ lɨ˩̰ hai˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤. M̥ɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ɲiə˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ᶮɟa˥˧ ᶮɟeŋ˩, ɲiə˩̰ ke˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧, ɲiə˩̰ pʰɒŋ˥˧ ʝɨ˧˩̤, muə˥˧ ke˧˦ ca˩̰ hɨ˩̰, muə˥˧ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ʂi˦ l̥u˦, ʂi˦ pa˦ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ tʂʰuə˧ heŋ˧˦.</blockquote></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div>

The 2008 film <a href="Gran_Torino" title="Gran Torino">Gran Torino</a> by <a href="Clint_Eastwood" title="Clint Eastwood">Clint Eastwood</a> features a large <a href="Hmong_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong American">American Hmong</a> speaking cast.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.<a href="#cite_note-OBrienSchein-57">[57]</a> The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the <a href="American_Film_Institute_Awards_2008" class="mw-redirect" title="American Film Institute Awards 2008">Ten Best Films of 2008</a> from the <a href="American_Film_Institute" title="American Film Institute">American Film Institute</a> and a <a href="C%C3%A9sar_Awards" title="César Awards">César Award</a> in France for <a href="C%C3%A9sar_Award_for_Best_Foreign_Film" title="César Award for Best Foreign Film">Best Foreign Film</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Films">Films</h2></div>

The following films feature the Hmong language:

<ul><li>2008 – "<a href="Gran_Torino" title="Gran Torino">Gran Torino</a>". Directed by Clint Eastwood; produced by Clint Eastwood, Bill Gerber, Robert Lorenz. The story follows Walt Kowalski, a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, Thao Vang Lor, is pressured by his cousin into trying to steal Walt's prized 1972 <a href="Ford_Torino" title="Ford Torino">Ford Torino</a> for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family.</li>

<li>2011 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1986783/">"Bittersweet Tears (Kua Muag Iab)"</a>. Directors by Kelly Vang & Mandy Xiong; Writer: Kelly Vang. Bittersweet Tears is a romantic comedy about a vengeful and bittersweet love between Gaomao (Jenny Lor) and Vong (Beng Hang). Vong is the only son of Chong Yee (Billy Yang). Having lost everything Gaomao swears vengeance on Chong Yee, the man whom she claims to be responsible for her loss. Will Gaomao be able to overcome her own heart and take her revenge?</li>

<li>2016 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5932546/">"1985"</a>. Director and writer by Kang Vang. When an adventurous Hmong teen discovers a secret map to a mythical dragon, he and his three best friends decide to go on a quest that leads them on a journey filled with danger, excitement, and self-discovery.</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong people</a></li>

<li><a href="Nyiakeng_Puachue_Hmong" title="Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong">Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong</a></li>

<li><a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanized_Popular_Alphabet" title="Romanized Popular Alphabet">Romanized Popular Alphabet</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

a Ethnologue uses the term "Hmong" as a "macrolanguage", i.e., along the lines of the Chinese 苗语 Miáoyǔ "Miao language", to handle the fact that some mainland Chinese academic sources lump many individual languages together into single "language" categories, while international sources almost universally keep these languages distinct.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> As the current article is focused on the Hmong language proper as found in international published sources, the population figure here reflects this. Ethnologue (17th edition) lists the population of the larger macrolanguage at 8.1 million.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJarkey201511_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJarkey2015">Jarkey 2015</a>, p. 11.

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFRatliff1992" class="citation book cs1">Ratliff, Martha (1992). Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong. Dekalb, Illinois: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Jarkey_2015-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Jarkey_2015_3-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJarkey2015" class="citation book cs1">Jarkey, Nerida (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=glTFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Serial Verbs in White Hmong</a>. Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-29239-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoeffelRastogiKimShahid2012" class="citation web cs1">Hoeffel, Elizabeth M.; Rastogi, Sonya; Kim, Myoung Ouk; Shahid, Hasan (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf">"The Asian Population: 2010"</a> (PDF). 2010 Census Briefs. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 20 March 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Not of Chinese Miao as a whole for which the standard language is based on <a href="Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Chap2Overview-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chap2Overview_7-3">d</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf">Chapter 2. Overview of Lao Hmong Culture</a>." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418014450/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf">Archive</a>) Promoting Cultural Sensitivity: Hmong Guide. <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. p. 14. Retrieved on 5 May 2013.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Note however that "Black Miao" is more commonly used for <a href="Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/cr_files/2007-188_cqd.pdf">"ISO 639-3 New Code Request"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 30 September 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGolstonPhong_Yang2001" class="citation book cs1">Golston, Chris; Phong Yang (2001). "Hmong loanword phonology". In C. Féry; A. D. Green; R. van de Vijver (eds.). Proceedings of HILP 5 (Linguistics in Potsdam 12 ed.). Potsdam: University of Potsdam. pp. 40–57. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-935024-27-4</bdi>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~chrisg/index_files/Golston%26Yang.pdf">[1]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Smalley, William et al. Mother of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. p. 48-51. See also: Mortensen, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf">“Preliminaries to Mong Leng (Mong Njua) Phonology”</a> Unpublished, UC Berkeley. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029161008/http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf">Archived</a> 29 October 2012 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> 王辅世主编，《苗语简志》，民族出版社，1985年。

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.com/vowel.php">"Hmong Dictionary - Dictionary Hmong"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020216_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 216.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Even the landmark book <a href="The_Sounds_of_the_World's_Languages" title="The Sounds of the World's Languages">The Sounds of the World's Languages</a> specifically describes lateral release as involving a <a href="Homorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic">homorganic</a> consonant.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020220_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 220.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2020214_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2020">White 2020</a>, p. 214.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Examples taken from: Heimbach, Ernest H. White Hmong–English Dictionary [White Meo-English Dictionary]. 2003 ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1969. Note that many of these words have multiple meanings.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRobson" class="citation web cs1">Robson, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170525-the-people-who-speak-in-whistles">"The beautiful languages of the people who talk like birds"</a>. BBC Future. Retrieved 25 March 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Fadiman291-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fadiman291_20-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFFadiman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Anne_Fadiman" title="Anne Fadiman">Fadiman, Anne</a> (1998). The spirit catches you and you fall down: a Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 292. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-374-52564-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SmithNJp44-21"><a href="#cite_ref-SmithNJp44_21-0">^</a> Smith, Natalie Jill. "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)" (PhD dissertation). <a href="University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>, 2001. p. 225. UMI Number: 3024065. Cites: Hamilton-Merritt, 1993 and Faderman [<a href="Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>], 1998

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEverson2017" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Michael_Everson" title="Michael Everson">Everson, Michael</a> (15 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17002r3-n4780r3-nyiakeng-puachue-hmong.pdf">"L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS"</a> (PDF).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.hmonglanguage.net">http://www.hmonglanguage.net</a> Hmong Language online encyclopedia.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Mortensen (2004)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRatliff1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ratliff, Martha (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120218232210/http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27:317-328.pdf">"Hmong–Mien demonstratives and pattern persistence"</a> (PDF). <a href="Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a>. 27: 317–328. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27%3A317-328.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2007.</cite> ()

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnfield201817_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnfield2018">Enfield 2018</a>, p. 17.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624–625-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019624–625_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 624–625.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199322–26-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199322–26_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBisang1993">Bisang 1993</a>, pp. 22–26.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpsonSohNomoto2011175_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpsonSohNomoto2011">Simpson, Soh & Nomoto 2011</a>, p. 175.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625–626-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019625–626_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 625–626.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622–624-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019622–624_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, pp. 622–624.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisang199327-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199327_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisang199327_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBisang1993">Bisang 1993</a>, p. 27.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortensen2019623_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortensen2019">Mortensen 2019</a>, p. 623.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230–231-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthews2007230–231_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthews2007">Matthews 2007</a>, pp. 230–231.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Strecker, David and Lopao Vang. White Hmong Grammar. 1986.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottin1978-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMottin1978_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMottin1978">Mottin 1978</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaisser1984_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJaisser1984">Jaisser 1984</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite201480–81-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite201480–81_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2014">White 2014</a>, pp. 80–81.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2021164_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2021">White 2021</a>, p. 164.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2021166-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2021166_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2021">White 2021</a>, p. 166.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFWhite2014" class="citation thesis cs1">White, Nathan (2014). Non-spatial Setting in White Hmong (MA thesis). Trinity Western University.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhite2020" class="citation book cs1">White, Nathan (2020). "Word in Hmong". In Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; Dixon, R. M. W.; White, Nathan (eds.). Phonological Word and Grammatical Word: A Cross-linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 213–259.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhite2021" class="citation journal cs1">White, Nathan (2021). "Language and variety mixing in diasporic Hmong". Italian Journal of Linguistics. 33 (1): 157–180. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26346%2F1120-2726-172">10.26346/1120-2726-172</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFXiongCohen2005" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Yuyou; Cohen, Diana (2005). Student's Practical Miao–Chinese–English Handbook / Npout Ndeud Xof Geuf Lol Hmongb Lol Shuad Lol Yenb. Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House. p. 539. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>7-5367-3287-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Enwall, Joakim. Hmong Writing Systems in Vietnam: A Case Study of Vietnam's Minority Language Policy. Stockholm, Sweden: Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1995.</li>

<li>Lyman, Thomas Amis (<a href="Chulalongkorn_University" title="Chulalongkorn University">Chulalongkorn University</a>). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf">The Mong (Leeg Miao) and their Language: A Brief Compendium</a>" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140903145653/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf">Archive</a>). p. 63–66.</li>

<li><a href="Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/110618.htm#06152359">Unicode 6.1: the Old Miao script</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/120721.htm">Anglo-Hmong tonology</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/mww" class="extiw external" title="incubator:Wp/mww">Hmong Daw test</a> of <a href="Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw external" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/25">White Hmong Vocabulary List</a> (from the World Loanword Database)</li>

<li><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:White_Hmong_Swadesh_list">White Hmong Swadesh List on Wiktionary</a> (see <a href="Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a>)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hmong.lomation.com/reader/">Lomation's Hmong Text Reader</a> – free online program that can read Hmong words/text.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.com">Online Hmong dictionary</a> (including audio clips)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214070244/http://www.moob.org/">Mong Literacy</a>: consonants, vowels, tones of Mong Njua and Hmong Daw</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ferazelhosting.net/~bryce/hmong.html">Hmong Resources</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hmo\hmo&first=0">Hmong basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmongdictionary.us/Hmong_spell_chk_mb.php/">Hmong text reader</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html">1. CVT — Romanized Popular Alphabet 0.0.1 documentation</a> Romanized Popular Alphabet</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED203687">English-Hmong Phrasebook with Useful Wordlist (for Hmong Speakers)</a>, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Hmong–Mien_languages126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Bahengic_languages" title="Bahengic languages">Bahengic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Sheic_languages" title="Sheic languages">Sheic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Kiong_Nai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiong Nai">Kiong Nai</a></li>

<li><a href="Younuo_language" title="Younuo language">Younuo</a>?</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="West_Hmongic_languages" title="West Hmongic languages">West Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Gha-Mu_language" title="Gha-Mu language">Small Flowery</a> (Gha-Mu)</li>

<li><a href="A-Hmao_language" title="A-Hmao language">Big Flowery</a> (A-Hmao)</li>

<li><a href="Mashan_Miao_language" title="Mashan Miao language">Mashan</a></li>

<li><a href="Guiyang_Miao_language" title="Guiyang Miao language">Guiyang</a></li>

<li><a href="Huishui_Miao_language" title="Huishui Miao language">Huishui</a></li>

<li><a href="Pingtang_Miao_language" title="Pingtang Miao language">Pingtang</a></li>

<li><a href="Luobohe_Miao_language" title="Luobohe Miao language">Luobohe</a></li>

<li><a href="Gejia_language" title="Gejia language">Gejia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dongjia_language" title="Dongjia language">Dongjia</a></li>

<li><a href="Xixiu_Miao_language" title="Xixiu Miao language">Xixiu</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bu–Nao31" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Bu%E2%80%93Nao_languages" title="Bu–Nao languages">Bu–Nao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Numao_language" title="Numao language">Numao</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Xong_language" title="Xong language">Xong</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Hmuic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Raojia_language" title="Raojia language">Raojia</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanqiao_language" title="Sanqiao language">Sanqiao</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Yangchun_Pai_Yao_language" title="Yangchun Pai Yao language">Yangchun Pai Yao</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lingling_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingling dialect">Lingling</a></li>

<li><a href="Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a></li>

<li><a href="Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li>

<li><a href="Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li>

<li><a href="She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">She Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(<a href="Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_language" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien language">Proto-Hmong–Mien</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Hmongic_language" title="Proto-Hmongic language">Proto-Hmongic</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Mienic_language" title="Proto-Mienic language">Proto-Mienic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_China222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_China222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Autonomous_regions_of_China" title="Autonomous regions of China">ARs</a> / <a href="Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">SARs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a><a href="Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">HK</a>/MC</li>

<li><a href="Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">English</a>HK</li>

<li><a href="Mongolian_language_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia">Mongolian</a>NM</li>

<li><a href="Macanese_Portuguese" title="Macanese Portuguese">Portuguese</a>MC</li>

<li><a href="Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a>XZ</li>

<li><a href="Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>XJ</li>

<li><a href="Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a>GX</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Autonomous_prefectures_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous prefectures of China">Prefecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li>

<li><a href="Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li>

<li><a href="Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li>

<li><a href="Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Autonomous_counties_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous counties of China">Counties</a>/<a href="Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia#Autonomous_banner" title="Banners of Inner Mongolia">Banners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">numerous</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sino-Tibetan_languages41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo- Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li>

<li><a href="Maang_language" title="Maang language">Maang</a></li>

<li><a href="Manga_language_(China)" title="Manga language (China)">Manga</a></li>

<li><a href="Mango_language_(China)" title="Mango language (China)">Mango</a></li>

<li><a href="Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mondzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Muangphe_language" title="Muangphe language">Muangphe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiandao_dialect" title="Xiandao dialect">Xiandao</a></li>

<li><a href="Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li>

<li><a href="Chashan_language" title="Chashan language">Chashan</a></li>

<li><a href="Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Southern_Loloish_languages" title="Southern Loloish languages">Hanoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Angluo_language" title="Angluo language">Angluo</a></li>

<li><a href="Baihong_language" title="Baihong language">Baihong</a></li>

<li><a href="Bukong_language" title="Bukong language">Bukong</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li>

<li><a href="Duoni_language" title="Duoni language">Duoni</a></li>

<li><a href="Duota_language" title="Duota language">Duota</a></li>

<li><a href="Habei_language" title="Habei language">Habei</a></li>

<li><a href="Khabi_language" title="Khabi language">Kabie</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaduo_language" title="Kaduo language">Kaduo</a></li>

<li><a href="Laomian_language" title="Laomian language">Laomian</a></li>

<li><a href="Laopin_language" title="Laopin language">Laopin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuobi_language" title="Nuobi language">Nuobi</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuomei_language" title="Nuomei language">Nuomei</a></li>

<li><a href="Phana%CA%BC_language" title="Phanaʼ language">Phana’</a></li>

<li><a href="Sangkong_language" title="Sangkong language">Sangkong</a></li>

<li><a href="Suobi_language" title="Suobi language">Suobi</a></li>

<li><a href="Tsukong_language" title="Tsukong language">Tsukong</a></li>

<li><a href="Yiche_language" title="Yiche language">Yiche</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Lisoish_languages" title="Lisoish languages">Lisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Hlersu_language" title="Hlersu language">Hlersu</a></li>

<li><a href="Kuamasi_language" title="Kuamasi language">Kuamasi</a></li>

<li><a href="Laizisi_language" title="Laizisi language">Laizisi</a></li>

<li><a href="Lolopo_language" title="Lolopo language">Lolopo</a></li>

<li><a href="Mangdi_language" title="Mangdi language">Mangdi</a></li>

<li><a href="Micha_language" title="Micha language">Micha</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonaga_language" title="Sonaga language">Sonaga</a></li>

<li><a href="Tholo_language" title="Tholo language">Toloza</a></li>

<li><a href="Xuzhang_language" title="Xuzhang language">Xuzhang</a></li>

<li><a href="Yangliu_language" title="Yangliu language">Yangliu</a></li>

<li><a href="Zibusi_language" title="Zibusi language">Zibusi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nisoish_languages" title="Nisoish languages">Nisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alingpo_language" title="Alingpo language">Alingpo</a></li>

<li><a href="Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Alugu</a></li>

<li><a href="Muji_language" title="Muji language">Bokha</a></li>

<li><a href="Khlula_language" title="Khlula language">Khlula</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu</a></li>

<li><a href="Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phala</a></li>

<li><a href="Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phola</a></li>

<li><a href="Phowa_language" title="Phowa language">Phowa</a></li>

<li><a href="Muji_language" title="Muji language">Phukha</a></li>

<li><a href="Phuma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phuma language">Phuma</a></li>

<li><a href="Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupa</a></li>

<li><a href="Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupha</a></li>

<li><a href="Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phuza</a></li>

<li><a href="Samei_language" title="Samei language">Samei</a></li>

<li><a href="Thopho_language" title="Thopho language">Thopho</a></li>

<li><a href="Zokhuo_language" title="Zokhuo language">Zokhuo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gokhy_language" title="Gokhy language">Gokhy</a></li>

<li><a href="Katso_language" title="Katso language">Katso</a></li>

<li><a href="Kucong_language" title="Kucong language">Kucong</a></li>

<li><a href="Naruo_language" title="Naruo language">Naruo</a></li>

<li><a href="Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanie_language" title="Sanie language">Sanie</a></li>

<li><a href="Zauzou_language" title="Zauzou language">Zauzou</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li>

<li><a href="Choyo_language" title="Choyo language">Choyo</a></li>

<li><a href="Guiqiong_language" title="Guiqiong language">Guiqiong</a></li>

<li><a href="Horpa_language" title="Horpa language">Horpa</a></li>

<li><a href="Japhug_language" title="Japhug language">Japhug</a></li>

<li><a href="Khroskyabs_language" title="Khroskyabs language">Khroskyabs</a></li>

<li><a href="Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Qiang_language" title="Northern Qiang language">Northern Qiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Qiang_language" title="Southern Qiang language">Southern Qiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Shixing_language" title="Shixing language">Shixing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tshobdun_language" title="Tshobdun language">Tshobdun</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhaba_language" title="Zhaba language">Zhaba</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li>

<li><a href="Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_Tibetan" title="Central Tibetan">Central Tibetan</a></li>

<li><a href="Choni_language" title="Choni language">Choni</a></li>

<li><a href="Dongwang_Tibetan_language" title="Dongwang Tibetan language">Dongwang</a></li>

<li><a href="Drugchu_language" title="Drugchu language">Drugchu</a></li>

<li><a href="Groma_language" title="Groma language">Groma</a></li>

<li><a href="Gserpa_language" title="Gserpa language">Gserpa</a></li>

<li><a href="Khalong_Tibetan_language" title="Khalong Tibetan language">Khalong</a></li>

<li><a href="Khams_Tibetan" title="Khams Tibetan">Khams</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li>

<li><a href="Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Tseku_language" title="Tseku language">Tseku</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhongu_Tibetan_language" title="Zhongu Tibetan language">Zhongu</a></li>

<li><a href="Zitsadegu_language" title="Zitsadegu language">Zitsadegu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li>

<li><a href="Derung_language" title="Derung language">Derung</a></li>

<li><a href="Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li>

<li><a href="Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li>

<li><a href="Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxianghua</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_languages41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li>

<li><a href="Bolyu_language" title="Bolyu language">Bolyu</a></li>

<li><a href="Bugan_language" title="Bugan language">Bugan</a></li>

<li><a href="Bumang_language" title="Bumang language">Bumang</a></li>

<li><a href="Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li>

<li><a href="Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Gejia_language" title="Gejia language">Gejia</a></li>

<li><a href="Guiyang_Miao_language" title="Guiyang Miao language">Guiyang</a></li>

<li><a href="Huishui_Miao_language" title="Huishui Miao language">Huishui</a></li>

<li><a href="Kiong_Nai_language" title="Kiong Nai language">Kiong Nai</a></li>

<li><a href="Luobohe_Miao_language" title="Luobohe Miao language">Luobohe</a></li>

<li><a href="Mashan_Miao_language" title="Mashan Miao language">Mashan</a></li>

<li><a href="Pingtang_Miao_language" title="Pingtang Miao language">Pingtang</a></li>

<li><a href="Xong_language" title="Xong language">Qo Xiong</a></li>

<li><a href="Raojia_language" title="Raojia language">Raojia</a></li>

<li><a href="She_language" title="She language">Sheyu</a></li>

<li><a href="Gha-Mu_language" title="Gha-Mu language">Small Flowery</a></li>

<li><a href="Xixiu_Miao_language" title="Xixiu Miao language">Xixiu</a></li>

<li><a href="Younuo_language" title="Younuo language">Younuo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bonan_language" title="Bonan language">Bonan</a></li>

<li><a href="Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Yugur_language" title="Eastern Yugur language">Eastern Yugur</a></li>

<li><a href="Kangjia_language" title="Kangjia language">Kangjia</a></li>

<li><a href="Khamnigan_Mongol" title="Khamnigan Mongol">Khamnigan</a></li>

<li><a href="Monguor_language" title="Monguor language">Monguor</a></li>

<li><a href="Oirat_language" title="Oirat language">Oirat</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordos_Mongolian" title="Ordos Mongolian">Ordos</a></li>

<li><a href="Santa_language" title="Santa language">Santa</a></li>

<li><a href="Torgut_Oirat" title="Torgut Oirat">Torgut</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Ningming</a></li>

<li><a href="Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Hongjin</a></li>

<li><a href="Buyang_language" title="Buyang language">Buyang</a></li>

<li><a href="Chadong_language" title="Chadong language">Chadong</a></li>

<li><a href="Gelao_languages" title="Gelao languages">Gelao</a></li>

<li><a href="Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li>

<li><a href="Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkja</a></li>

<li><a href="Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a></li>

<li><a href="Mulam_language" title="Mulam language">Mulam</a></li>

<li><a href="Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a></li>

<li><a href="Oroqen_language" title="Oroqen language">Oroqen</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Fuyu_Kyrgyz_language" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz language">Fuyu Kyrgyz</a></li>

<li><a href="Ili_Turki_language" title="Ili Turki language">Ili Turki</a></li>

<li><a href="Salar_language" title="Salar language">Salar</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Yugur_language" title="Western Yugur language">Western Yugur</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a> (Indo-European)</li>

<li><a href="Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> (Austronesian)</li>

<li><a href="Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> (Austronesian)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Esperanto_in_China" title="Esperanto in China">Esperanto</a></li>

<li><a href="Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></li>

<li><a href="Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> (Kinh)</li>

<li><a href="Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Zhongyuan</a>

<li><a href="Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li>

<li><a href="Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teoswa</a></li>

<li><a href="Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Puxian</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a></li>

<li><a href="Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shaojiang</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li>

<li><a href="She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li>

<li><a href="Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li>

<li><a href="Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Oujiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a>

<ul><li><a href="Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li>

<li>Northwestern

<ul><li><a href="Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Northern Zhejiang

<ul><li><a href="Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li>

<li><a href="Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Su–Jia–Hu

<ul><li><a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a></li>

<li><a href="Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou</a>

<ul><li><a href="Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou proper</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a>

<ul><li><a href="Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Xuanzhou_Wu_Chinese" title="Xuanzhou Wu Chinese">Xuanzhou</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole/Mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Hezhou_language" title="Hezhou language">Hezhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Linglinghua" title="Linglinghua">Lingling</a></li>

<li><a href="Macanese_Patois" title="Macanese Patois">Macanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a></li>

<li><a href="Qoqmon%C4%8Daq_language" title="Qoqmončaq language">Qoqmončaq</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanqiao_language" title="Sanqiao language">Sanqiao</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangwang_language" title="Tangwang language">Tangwang</a></li>

<li><a href="Wutun_language" title="Wutun language">Wutun</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Khitan_language" title="Khitan language">Khitan</a></li>

<li><a href="Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a></li>

<li><a href="Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuoba_language" title="Tuoba language">Tuoba</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuyuhun_language" title="Tuyuhun language">Tuyuhun</a></li>

<li><a href="Xianbei#Language" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhang-Zhung_language" title="Zhang-Zhung language">Zhangzhung</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese Sign</a>

<li><a href="Tibetan_Sign_Language" title="Tibetan Sign Language">Tibetan Sign</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div>

<ul><li>GX = Guangxi</li>

<li>MC = Macau</li>

<li>NM = Inner Mongolia</li>

<li>XJ = Xinjiang</li>

<li>XZ = Tibet</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Laos248" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_Laos248" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Laos#Languages" title="Laos">Languages of Laos</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Austroasiatic191" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bahnaric_languages" title="Bahnaric languages">Bahnaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Halang_language" title="Halang language">Halang</a></li>

<li><a href="Laven_language" title="Laven language">Laven</a></li>

<li><a href="Nyaheun_language" title="Nyaheun language">Nyaheun</a></li>

<li><a href="Sapuan_language" title="Sapuan language">Sapuan</a></li>

<li><a href="Sedang_language" title="Sedang language">Sedang</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Katuic_languages" title="Katuic languages">Katuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Khmuic_languages" title="Khmuic languages">Khmuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Mlabri_language" title="Mlabri language">Mlabri</a></li>

<li><a href="Kniang_language" title="Kniang language">Phong-Kniang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Palaungic_languages" title="Palaungic languages">Palaungic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Kiorr_language" title="Kiorr language">Kiorr</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamet_language" title="Lamet language">Lamet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Maleng_language" title="Maleng language">Maleng</a></li>

<li><a href="Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn</a></li>

<li><a href="Thavung_language" title="Thavung language">Thavung</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Western_Cham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Cham language">Western Cham</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Bantang_language" title="Bantang language">Bantang</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantan_language" title="Cantan language">Cantan</a></li>

<li><a href="Cauho_language" title="Cauho language">Cauho</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li>

<li><a href="Phunoi_language" title="Phunoi language">Phunoi</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinsali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinsali language">Sinsali</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Northern_Thai_language" title="Northern Thai language">Northern Thai</a></li>

<li><a href="Phuan_language" title="Phuan language">Phuan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tai_Daeng_language" title="Tai Daeng language">Tai Daeng</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="French_language_in_Laos" title="French language in Laos">French</a></li>

<li><a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Laotian_sign_languages" title="Laotian sign languages">Laotian sign languages</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <a href="Portal%3ALaos" title="Portal:Laos">Laos portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Myanmar175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_Myanmar175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_Myanmar" title="Languages of Myanmar">Languages of Myanmar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a></li>

<li><a href="Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">English</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semiofficial language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">English</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages (by <a href="Administrative_divisions_of_Myanmar" title="Administrative divisions of Myanmar">state or region</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chin_State" title="Chin State">Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Northeastern_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Northeastern Kuki-Chin languages">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Falam_language" title="Falam language">Falam</a></li>

<li><a href="Siyin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Siyin language">Siyin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tedim_language" title="Tedim language">Tedim</a></li>

<li><a href="Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Central_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Central Kuki-Chin languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Hakha_Chin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakha Chin language">Hakha Chin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ngawn_language" title="Ngawn language">Ngawn</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Maraic_languages" title="Maraic languages">Maraic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lautu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lautu language">Lautu</a></li>

<li><a href="Senthang_language" title="Senthang language">Senthang</a></li>

<li><a href="Zotung_language" title="Zotung language">Zotung</a></li>

<li><a href="Zyphe_language" title="Zyphe language">Zyphe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Southern_Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Southern Kuki-Chin languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Kaang_language" title="Kaang language">Kaang</a></li>

<li><a href="Khumi_language" title="Khumi language">Khumi</a></li>

<li><a href="K%CA%BCch%C3%B2_language" title="Kʼchò language">Kʼchò</a></li>

<li><a href="Songlai_language" title="Songlai language">Songlai</a></li>

<li><a href="Sumtu_language" title="Sumtu language">Sumtu</a></li>

<li><a href="Thaiphum_language" title="Thaiphum language">Thaiphum</a></li>

<li><a href="Welaung_language" title="Welaung language">Welaung</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Anu-Hkongso</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li>

<li><a href="Derung_language" title="Derung language">Drung</a></li>

<li><a href="Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li>

<li><a href="Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li>

<li><a href="Rawang_language" title="Rawang language">Rawang</a></li>

<li><a href="Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Khamti_language" title="Khamti language">Khamti</a></li>

<li><a href="Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li>

<li><a href="Tai_Laing_language" title="Tai Laing language">Tai Laing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kayah_State" title="Kayah State">Kayah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kayaw_language" title="Kayaw language">Kayaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Karenni_language" title="Karenni language">Karenni</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kayin_State" title="Kayin State">Kayin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bwe_Karen_language" title="Bwe Karen language">Bwe Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="Geba_Karen_language" title="Geba Karen language">Geba Karen</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Eastern_Pwo_language" title="Eastern Pwo language">Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Pwo_language" title="Western Pwo language">Western</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="S'gaw_Karen_language" title="S'gaw Karen language">S’gaw Karen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Magway_Region" title="Magway Region">Magway</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rungtu" class="mw-redirect" title="Rungtu">Rungtu</a> (Taungtha)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mon_State" title="Mon State">Mon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Rakhine_State" title="Rakhine State">Rakhine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rakhine_language" title="Rakhine language">Rakhine</a></li>

<li><a href="Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li>

<li><a href="Laitu_language" title="Laitu language">Laitu</a></li>

<li><a href="Mro-Khimi_language" title="Mro-Khimi language">Mro-Khimi</a></li>

<li><a href="Rohingya_language" title="Rohingya language">Rohingya</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sagaing_Region" title="Sagaing Region">Sagaing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Khiamniungan_language" title="Khiamniungan language">Khiamniungan</a></li>

<li><a href="Konyak_language" title="Konyak language">Konyak</a></li>

<li><a href="Leinong_language" title="Leinong language">Leinong</a></li>

<li><a href="Makyam_language" title="Makyam language">Makyam</a></li>

<li><a href="Ponyo_language" title="Ponyo language">Ponyo</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangsa_language" title="Tangsa language">Tangsa</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Akyaung_Ari_language" title="Akyaung Ari language">Akyaung Ari</a></li>

<li><a href="Makury_language" title="Makury language">Makury</a></li>

<li><a href="Long_Phuri_language" title="Long Phuri language">Long Phuri</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li>

<li><a href="Danau_language" title="Danau language">Danau</a></li>

<li><a href="Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li>

<li><a href="Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Geko_Karen" class="mw-redirect" title="Geko Karen">Geko Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="Intha_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Intha dialect">Intha</a></li>

<li><a href="Lahta_language" title="Lahta language">Lahta</a></li>

<li><a href="Padaung_language" title="Padaung language">Padaung</a></li>

<li><a href="Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Taungyo</a></li>

<li><a href="Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tanintharyi_Region" title="Tanintharyi Region">Tanintharyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kedah_Malay" title="Kedah Malay">Malay</a></li>

<li><a href="Moken_language" title="Moken language">Moken</a></li>

<li><a href="Moklen_language" title="Moklen language">Moklen</a></li>

<li><a href="Tavoyan_dialects" title="Tavoyan dialects">Tavoyan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">Immigrant language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li>

<li><a href="Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Working_language" title="Working language">Working language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Burmese_sign_language" title="Burmese sign language">Burmese sign language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Thailand211" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_Thailand211" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_Thailand" title="Languages of Thailand">Languages of Thailand</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Southwestern_Tai_languages" title="Southwestern Tai languages">Other Thais</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lao–Phutai</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chiang Saen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Northern_Thai_language" title="Northern Thai language">Northern Thai</a></li>

<li><a href="Phuan_language" title="Phuan language">Phuan</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sukhothai</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Southern_Thai_language" title="Southern Thai language">Southern Thai</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand" title="Ethnic groups in Thailand">Minority</a> by languages groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Chong_language" title="Chong language">Chong</a></li>

<li><a href="Sa'och_language" title="Sa'och language">Chung</a></li>

<li><a href="Jahai_language" title="Jahai language">Jahai</a></li>

<li><a href="Kensiu_language" title="Kensiu language">Kensiu</a></li>

<li><a href="Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>

<ul><li><a href="Northern_Khmer_dialect" title="Northern Khmer dialect">Northern</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Khmer_dialect" title="Western Khmer dialect">Western</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kintaq_language" title="Kintaq language">Kintaq</a></li>

<li><a href="Mlabri_language" title="Mlabri language">Mlabri</a></li>

<li><a href="Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li>

<li><a href="Thavung_language" title="Thavung language">Thavung</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Malayan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayan languages">Malay</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bangkok_Malay" title="Bangkok Malay">Bangkok Malay</a></li>

<li><a href="Pattani_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattani Malay">Pattani Malay</a></li>

<li><a href="Satun_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Satun Malay">Satun Malay</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moken_language" title="Moken language">Moken</a></li>

<li><a href="Moklen_language" title="Moklen language">Moklen</a></li>

<li><a href="Urak_Lawoi%E2%80%99_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Urak Lawoi’ language">Urak Lawoi’</a></li></ul>

<ul>

<li><a href="Eastern_Pwo_language" title="Eastern Pwo language">Eastern Pwo</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese languages">Sinitic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a></li>

<li><a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li>

<li><a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li>

<li><a href="Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Hokchew</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Pwo_language" title="Northern Pwo language">Northern Pwo</a></li>

<li><a href="Phrae_Pwo_language" title="Phrae Pwo language">Phrae Pwo</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Karen_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Karen language">Red Karen (Eastern Kayah)</a></li>

<li><a href="S'gaw_Karen_language" title="S'gaw Karen language">S'gaw Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugong language">Ugong</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">Immigrant language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li>

<li><a href="Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thai_Sign_Language" title="Thai Sign Language">Thai Sign Language</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Vietnam110" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_Vietnam110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Vietnam">Languages of Vietnam</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bahnaric_languages" title="Bahnaric languages">Bahnaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chrau_language" title="Chrau language">Chrau</a></li>

<li><a href="Halang_language" title="Halang language">Halang</a></li>

<li><a href="Katua_language" title="Katua language">Katua</a></li>

<li><a href="Kayong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayong language">Kayong</a></li>

<li><a href="Monom_language" title="Monom language">Monom</a></li>

<li><a href="Rengao_language" title="Rengao language">Rengao</a></li>

<li><a href="Sedang_language" title="Sedang language">Sedang</a></li>

<li><a href="Stieng_language" title="Stieng language">Stieng</a></li>

<li><a href="Takua_language" title="Takua language">Takua</a></li>

<li><a href="Tariang_language" title="Tariang language">Tariang</a></li>

<li><a href="Todrah_language" title="Todrah language">Todrah</a></li></ul>

<li><a href="Pacoh_language" title="Pacoh language">Pacoh</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Maleng_language" title="Maleng language">Maleng</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_language" title="Mường language">Mường</a></li>

<li><a href="Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn</a></li></ul>

<li><a href="Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_L%C3%A2m_language" title="Quảng Lâm language">Quảng Lâm</a></li>

<li><a href="Kh%C3%A1ng_language" title="Kháng language">Kháng</a></li></ul>

<li><a href="Haroi_language" title="Haroi language">Haroi</a></li>

<li><a href="Jarai_language" title="Jarai language">Jarai</a></li>

<li><a href="Roglai_language" title="Roglai language">Roglai</a></li></ul>

<ul>

<li><a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese</a> (<a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> · <a href="Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a> · <a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> · <a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Laghuu_language" title="Laghuu language">Xapho</a></li>

<li><a href="Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mantsi Lolo</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Caolan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Caolan language">Caolan</a></li>

<li><a href="Gelao_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelao language">Gelao</a></li>

<li><a href="Lachi_language" title="Lachi language">Lachi</a></li>

<li><a href="Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li>

<li><a href="Tai_Daeng_language" title="Tai Daeng language">Tai Daeng</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">French</a>

<li><a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vietglish" title="Vietglish">Vietglish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li>

<li><a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vietnamese_sign_languages" title="Vietnamese sign languages">Vietnamese sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hanoi_Sign_Language" title="Hanoi Sign Language">Hanoi Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Haiphong_Sign_Language" title="Haiphong Sign Language">Haiphong Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language">Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox415" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authority control databases: National </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007563084705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Hmong_language&oldid=1303073670">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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